A striking feature of modern society is the extremely close contact which has developed among groups of very diverse cultural traditions. This new development in inter-cultural relationships, practically between the East and West, has created a revolutionary effect on religion and on philosophy. There was an era when Westerners thought that the theories of oriental people never rose beyond the stage of simple faith and that therefore they could not have any philosophy at all in the proper sense of the term. So, they limited themselves to the study of western philosophy. In the different manner, religious authorities feared communication with other religions and considered such inter communication as hazardous to the very security of their own religions. But now, inter-communication and inter-study between religions and philosophies has come to stay, an irreversible and irresistible factor of modern society. The resultant situation is such that new demands are being made for comparative studies of religions and philosophies. In this process, I wish to draw attention to some considered points of similarity between religion and philosophy, Buddhism and Existentialism respectively.
Buddhism means the realization of truth. It is only by constant study and practice that we can realize the excellence of the Buddha’s doctrine. The Buddha’s view of the word emphasizes that his doctrine is a realistic one. Understanding of the truth and the nature of the world and its inhabitants are the basic teachings of the Buddha. However Buddhism does not say anything dogmatic but a pragmatic teaching in the sense that one should understand and not merely believe. Buddhism does not advocate blind faith.
Although some consider Buddhism a religion as well as a philosophy, it is essentially a way of life based on the Middle path. It is therefore more than a Religion or a philosophy in the commonly accepted sense of the term. This teaching helps main kind to understand the problems of the life, and to face the truth about himself. Hiding or shying away from material or spiritual things, or soothing and pampering the individual for temporary psychological relief, is not the aim in Buddhism. It is directed the man into a permanent and absolute relief of all kind of sorrow of this world.
The movement called Existentialism has its origin shortly after the war of 1914-1918. It has been extremely popular in France and in Germany since the second world war and has influential in the English – speaking world. In recent years the word ‘Existentialism’ become gained popular currency mainly through the works of Jean-Paul Sartre. Sartre is the leading French representative of atheistic Existentialism. While his main philosophical works are “Being and Nothingness” and “Critique of dialectical Reason”, many know him best through his Dramas and Novels. In the sphere of existentialism the word ‘existence’ = ‘existenz’ is a revival, interpretation, and an adaptation of the thought of the Danish writer, philosopher and theologiam, Soren Kierkegard (1813-1855).
In its most simplified form, the fundamental problem Kierkegaard raised in his works was, “What is the meaning of man’s life? What sense can be make out of human existence? What is the purpose of human events?”
According to the existentialist view, we are trapped in existence, living in a completely meanless world: no principles that we use for ordering or comprehending events has any basis. But we cannot escape having to deal with ‘existence’, and having to make sense out of it; all that6 we can tell is that this world that we can contronted with is utterly arbitrary. When we realize the unintelligibility of the world, as well as our inability to withdraw from contact with it and our need for finding some principle of order of intelligibility, we are then ready for the existentialist message. One first has to be overpowered by the ‘nausea of existence and has to acknowledge that the patterns of our lives are totally due to arbitrary ways of living and as such any other would do as well.
As this point, we are confronted with our ‘dreaded freedom’, recognizing that we are completely free to choose our world view and our way of living in the world. However, there is no way in which we can find guides for choice, no way we can avoid making a choice, and no way of escaping from the consequences of the choices – basic decisions.
Existentialism directs the phenomenological method upon which the human phenomena of choice that end angers and decision that end angers the vital ethical theories firmly rooted in the existence of human freedom, such as awareness, care time and freedom is looked upon as a mode of existence a way of being in the world. Consequently, existentialism inaugurated intensified investigations into topics central to philosophical theories and ethical practices, yet often ignored by traditional thinkers.
Wars, riots and clashes seen within and among many societies are some of the main factors which contributed to the birth of existentialism. The catastrophic collapse of Europe, the horrible experience of the Nazi power and the occupation of France, left people wondering whether their views and values were meaningless. The world in which they and we have to live no longer seems susceptible to rational examination. Instead only arbitrary beliefs seem to be able to give us a how to live in the face of an unintelligible universe. The futility of grief-stricken life, continuous suffering, passing happiness, death, decay and disease led to frustration. Meaningless living provoked man to seek a solution, or mental satisfaction through a meaningful life. In addition, European countries faced the destruction of individually of man as a result of industrialization. Man was turned more or less into a piece of mechanism, thereby losing his idea of the purpose of living according to his own wishes. At the same time, highly developed nations in the West enjoyed extreme comforts and luxury, but were not content with the riches or the luxuries they possessed. Therefore a philosophical solution was sought to soothe disturbed minds.
The background against which Buddhism came into being was similar in the sense that, the period was searching for self-realization of the truth. Lord Buddha was well aware of the general religious practices of the day through his own investigations. It is said in Dhammapada.
Bahum ve saranam yanti
Pabbatani vanani ca
Aramarukkhacetyani
Manussa bhayatajjita
N’etam kho saranam khemam
N’ etam saranam uttamain
N’etam saranam agamma
Sabbadukkha pamuccati ( Dhammapada, 188,189)
That “people when tormented by fear, seek divine protection from mountains, groves, trees and shrines”. Thus, we see the people were believed in invisible divine powers which govern the whole world. Rite and ritual were traditional methods that man was religiously bounded to obey the commands of such invisible powers. The Brahmin priests were appeared as representatives of such divine power call the God. The caste system possessed unbreakable rules. No low caste person could obtain knowledge, whereas the privileged groups were endowed with knowledge par excellence. In this environment, Buddha sought a way of cessation of suffering.
As Buddha was taught, man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle of Existentialism. It is a protest against all views which tend to regard man as if he were a thing; that is, only an assortment of functions and reactions. This means that in the sphere of philosophical theory Existentialism stands against Mechanism and Naturalism. Buddhism delves far more deeply into this concept. In the Dhammapada, which presents the essence of the Buddha’s teaching, it is said: ‘You are the Lord of yourself, you are your own goal/you are the goal of yourself; therefore, control yourself as a merchant controls a spirited horse.
Atta hiatttanonatho
Atta hi attano gati
Tasma sannamay attanam
Assam dhadram va vanijo (Dhammapada, 380)
Western philosophers have dropped this most important factor of individualism. Even though human individuality did not get its due place in the traditional philosophical sphere, Buddhism gave attention to the individual, to find a way out, to escape from suffering, birth, old age, sickness and death. It is said in the Dhammapada
Yo ca buddhan ca dhamman ca
Sanghan ca saranam gato
Cattari ariyasaccani
Sammappannaya passati
Dukkham dukkhasamuppadam
dukkhassa ca atikkamam
Ariyancattthangikam maaGGAM
dukkhupasamagaminam.
Etamkho saranam khemam
etam saranam uttaman
Etam saranam agamma
Sabbadukka pamuccati. (Dhammapada, 190,191,192):
‘Whosoever seeks refuge in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha with correct understanding, appreciates the Four Noble Truths: Suffering, the Cause of Suffering and the “path” leading to the Cessation of Suffering (The Noble eight fold path). This is the safest refuge. By seeking such a refuge, a man is freed from all sufferings. As everybody knows, the one who seeks such a refuge escapes the agony caused by them, because his mind is not unduly attached to transient aspects of life; he does not consider them ultimate values.
Contemporary Marxist philosophers claim that Existentialists are narrow-minded when explaining worries and frustrations. Albert Camu is one who presents an anti-Marxist view. As he presented Existentialism is a struggle. It is not a struggle between landlords and serfs, capitalists and the oppressed or against dictoatrial rule. It is a struggle of man with his own spirit or self. A Man lives in a society, not alone. Therefore, he cannot stray away from life. Camus, main idea was that man’s mere existence is a struggle and he continues to struggle until his death. The solution to this dilemma is offered in Buddhism: ‘Ones best guardian is oneself. What better guardian could there be? When a man disciplines himself, he will find such shelter as few can find’
Atta hi attano natho
ko hi natho paro siya
Attano va sudantena
Natham labhati dullabham. (Dhammapada, 160)
What is requires for realization of realization of existence is self-discipline or self – mastery. This says Herman Hesse, is a path which is either (a menace to the individual know to the society). It is the only way to solve human problems without a bloody revolution. It could be altered to suit the economic and social needs of a country. American Existentialist philosopher W.A. Lujphen also agrees to a religious solution. When talks about the meaning of human life.
Existentialism, which is quite different from the framework of political economy, says that enemy of man is not capitalism or Totalitarianism, but man himself. Buddha’s insistence on Right Livelihood as an element of the path to liberation, reveals the principles that should guide the economics actions of individuals, groups and nations. Modern society has comfortably defined a job or profession as a way of earning money, which justifies any industry or trade as long as it produces a big income. Service is considered a by-product of the job or a means of improving their income. A liberated being however, reverse this order. Income for him is only the consequence of a service rendered to another. For him, the value of a job or profession lies not in the amount or payment attached to it, but in the value of the service or help rendered and the mental satisfaction he gets in return. Such a view of life is possible only to one for whom ‘livelihood’ is an element on the path to his own liberation.
Existentialism including Hesse and Jujphen emphasize that while ‘alienation’ destroys man’s joy, it also instills lamentation, sympathy, fear, frustration, distress and emptiness. The demands of society from the individual man are such that he is not bound to tolerate any of them. The sourse of ‘alienation’ is ‘society’. Society exists with or without class distinctions. Therefore, the essential society exists whether it is capitalist or socialist. Whatever the productivity pattern the problem of alienation is a common factor in any society. Marxism suggests saving man from the capitalist protecting the man from totalitarianism. What is necessary here is not another political solution but the self-realization. Therefore, it is a justifying conclusion to say that man himself is his own salvation or heaven. This might be the reason that contemporary western countries have faced the spiritual crisis.
By this way Existentialism offers very important facts about man. Although Existentialists are not authors of any religions, the questions they often asked and the problems they have tried to answer shows a spiritual nature. The question, “What is the purpose of living?” shows the aim of Existentialism. It’s aim being not to establish a logical consistent system but a solution for individual existence; Existentialism spreads speedily due to the contemporary social environment. Buddhism provides this most needy path of salvation through self-discipline and self-determination, as it is said in Dhammapada
Susukham vata jivama
ussukesu anussuka
Ussukesu manussesu
viharama anussuka.
Susukham vata jivama
yesam no natthi kincanam
pitibhakkha bhavissama
deva abhassara yatha. (Dhammapada, 199,200)
Let us then, with benevolence live happily among those who are full of hate. Let us live free from hatred among those who are victims of hatred.
Let us then, free from aliments, live happily among those who are ailing. Among men afflicted with ailments, let us dwell free from ailments.
Let us then, with benevolence live happily among those who are ailing. Among men afflicted with ailments, let us dwell free from ailments.
Let us then, free from lust, live happily among those who are full of lust. Among the lustful, let us dwell free from lust; let us then, live happily. We who own nothing can call nothing our own desire nothing. Let us be like the radiant gods (Abhassara devas) who nourish one happiness.
An escape from the inner suffering of the human being is depicted in Buddhism. Liberation from suffering exists only when there is no greed. The one who understands this inner tranquility has achieved the greatest individual happiness. Nirvana is that tranquility. As the Dhammapada says: Natti Raga Samo Aggi.
“There is no fire like that of lust;
There is no crime like that of ill-will
There is no ill like the body,
No bliss like the supreme pease of Nibbana.”
© Satipatthāna Magazine